Text type	Informative	Expressive	Operative	Audio-medial
Text focus	Content-focused	Form-focused	Appellative-focused	All
Language function	Informative (representing objects and facts)	Expressive (expressing sender’s attitude)	Appellative (making an appeal to text receiver)	All
Language dimension	Logical	Aesthetic	Dialogic	All
Translation method	Plain prose	Identifying method (takes ST author's perspective)	Adaptive (equivalent effect)	Supplementary

6.1- The Hallidayan model of language and discourse

Sociocultural environment in part conditions genre, and genre determines register and other elements in the systemic framework. Register comprises:
- Field: what is being written about.
- Tenor: who is communicating and to whom.
- Mode: the form of communication, e.g. written or spoken, formal or informal.
Each of these variables of registered is associated to a strand of meaning
- Ideational: provides a representation of the world or an event.
- Interpersonal: enacts social relationships.
- Textual: makes a text hang together in a coherent way.
These strands are founded by the choice of lexis, grammar and syntax (lexicogrammar) made by the text producer.

6.2- House’s model of translation quality assessment

Model based on comparative ST-TT analysis leading to the assessment of the quality highlighting mismatches or errors.

Title	Description	Example
Reference	Semantic relation where meaning needs to be interpreted through reference to something else	I know Bill followed the match. He saw it on TV - he refers to Bill, it to the match
Substitution	Grammatical substitution within the text	Artic foxes threatened by red ones - red ones substituted for red foxes
Ellipsis	Kind of zero substitution, where an elements needs to be supplied	For every dollar donated federally, three more are donated by the State- element dollars needs to be supplied
Conjunction	Semantic relation indicating how what follows is linked to what has gone before	Additive (and...), adversative (but, however...), temporal (then, finally...)
Lexical	Lexical relation where cohesion is produced by the selection of vocabulary through reiteration and/or repetition.	Reiteration through: -repetition, synonyms, superordinate, general word. Collocation through: -pairs of words, -words of the same semantic field

CHAPTER 7: Systemic theories

Sum: pag. 142

Target-oriented descriptive translation studies

Manipulation School

Polysystem theory fed into developments in descriptive translation studies: branch of translation studies aiming to identify norms and laws of translation.

7.1- Polysystem theory

Developed in the 70s by Itamar Even-Zohar
Translated literature operates as a system in itself in the way the TL culture selects works for translation and in the way translation norms, behaviour and policies are influenced by other co-systems.
Literary work was not studied in isolation, but as part of a literary system, defined itself as a system of functions in continual interrelationship with other orders.
Polysystem: system of various systems which intersect with each other and partly overlap, using concurrently different options, yet functioning as one structured whole, whose members are independent. This occurs in a dynamic hierarchy.
Primary position in the polysystem: practices actively in shaping the centre of the polysystem. It is likely to be innovative and linked to major events of literary history as they are taking place.
Three major cases when translated literature occupies the primary position:

Secondary position in the polysystem: represents a peripheral system within the polysystem. It has no major influence over the central system, and even becomes a conservative element, preserving conventional forms and conforming to the literary norms of the target system.
The position occupied by translated literature in the polysystem conditions the translation strategy.
Gentzler points out the advantages of the polysystem
- Literature is studied alongside social, historical and cultural forces.
- Study of texts within the cultural and literary systems in which it functions.
- Non-descriptive definition of equivalence.
He also points out some criticisms:
- Overgeneralization to ‘universal laws’ of translation based on relatively little evidence.
- Over-reliance on a historically based Formalist model which might be inappropriate for translated texts in the 70s.
- Tendency to focus on the abstract model rather than the ‘real-life constraints’
- How far the supposed scientific model is really objective

7.2- Toury and descriptive translation studies

Toury: translations occupy a position in the social and literary systems of the target culture.
Three-phase methodology for systematic DTS
- Situate the text within the target culture system.
- Undertake a textual analysis of the ST and the TT to identify relationships between corresponding segments.
- Attempt generalizations about the patterns identified in the two texts.
The repeating of these phases is called replicability; allows the corpus to be extended and a descriptive profile of the translations to be built up according to the pair’s characteristics. Ultimate aim is to state laws of behaviour for translation in general.

7.2.1- The concept of norms of translation behaviour

Norms: translation of general values or ideas shared by a community into performance instructions appropriate for and applicable to particular situations.
Rules: are the strongest constraints. In a professional translation context, this could be the breaking of a confidentiality agreement, or committing a gross grammatical error.
How to identify the norms that prevail in a translation:
- Examination of texts
- From the explicit statements made about norms by translators, publishers, reviewers, and other participants in the translation act.
Initial norm: general choice made by translators. If they subject themselves to the norms in the ST, then the TT will be adequate. If the target norm prevails, then the TT will be acceptable.
Preliminary norms: translation policy and directedness. Translation policy: factors determining the selection of texts for translation in a specific language, culture or time.